The doctrine of degrees which is recounted in this Part has hitherto been illustrated by various things which exist in both worlds, as by the degrees of the heavens where the angels are, by the degrees of heat and light with them, and by the degrees of atmospheres, and by various things in the human body, and also

in the animal and mineral kingdoms. But this doctrine is of wider application. It extends not only to natural things, but also to civil, moral, and spiritual things, and to all and each of their details. The reason that the doctrine of degrees even extends to such things is twofold. First, because in every thing of which anything can be predicated there is a trine which is called end, cause, and effect and these three are inter-related according to degrees of height. Secondly, everything civil, moral and spiritual is not something abstracted from substance, but they are substances. For as love and wisdom are not abstract things, but are substances (as was shown above n. 40-43), so in like manner are all things which are called civil, moral and spiritual. These can indeed be thought of abstractly from substance, but yet in themselves they are not abstract; as for example, affection and thought, charity and faith, will and understanding, for it is the same with those as with love and wisdom, namely, they are not possible outside of subjects which are substances, but are states of subjects, that is, of substances. That they are changes of these, which present variations, will be seen in what follows. By substance is also understood form, for there cannot be substance without form.